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looking at brands and advertisements all day long, most of the time we’re not taking anything in. Raymond thinks she knows why. Her move from research in visual processing into consumer psychology began in the early 1990s, when she discovered some strange behaviours in the brain’s attentional system. She showed people a stream of letters and numbers on a screen and asked them to look out for a letter X. When she asked her volunteers afterwards what they had seen, she found that if the X appeared up to half a second or so after the white letter, or vice versa, people failed to see it. She concluded that if something catches your attention, your brain is blind to anything else for a short period afterwards. She called this effect the “attentional blink.” “In short, the reason most advertising doesn’t work is that we’re in a severe state of attentional overload. Unless advertising is presented in a way the brain can absorb, it is simply not seen,” Raymond says. So what does this mean for advertisers? A typical television advertisement consists of a series of attention-grabbing images interspersed with the product. But unless the scenes in the advertisement are cut to take account of attentional blinks, the brain is likely to ignore the information the advertiser wants to get across. The same applies to magazine advertisements, where viewers often register the main image but fail to pick up on the secondary images—the bits advertisers often desperately want us to see. Raymond says advertisers consistently fail to consider how easily the brain misses the point. It’s not that they haven’t realised that the space and time they have to get their message across has shrunk. But advertisers respond by cramming in ever more complex information. Raymond is opposed to this and her advice is simple: deliver your message in a straightforward manner and do so slowly, gently and concisely. After her research on the attentional blink, she wondered whether attention would be linked to other processes in the brain, particularly emotion. Could our attentional state influence whether we like or dislike a brand, for example? Today, companies are hugely interested in the emotional value of their brands as they want their products to make us feel good. It is well known that if something elicits positive emotions then you are more likely to take notice of it. But Raymond’s further research also demonstrates that if people are distracted by an image or a brand when performing an intellectually demanding task, they tend to instantly dislike the brands, regardless of their emotional value. So, for example, if you are reading a web page when a banner advertisement starts flashing, or are watching a film with intrusive product placement, it is probable you will come to dislike the brand whatever it is. This contradicts the more-exposure-the-better rule most of the industry follows, says Raymond, and means that advertising can backfire horribly. Advertisers tend to buy as much exposure for a product as they can—through television and radio commercials, billboards, whatever they think will attract their target audiences—but again Raymond has found that this doesn’t necessarily work in their favour. Perhaps the most dangerous time, says Raymond, is the holiday season when advertisers are madly competing to grab【缺少答案，请补充】

Jane Raymond states that Chillz mineral water is packaged in a way that is unattractive to consumers.

Consumers are still exposed to more advertising through television commercials than through the medium of the Internet.

Jamie Rayner says that people are no longer influenced by traditional advertisements.

According to Jamie Rayner, the reason that most products are discontinued is that advertising fails to attract consumers.

Jane Raymond believes that commercials should be simpler in their content.

Advertisements showing unfamiliar brands affect a person’s concentration more than ones with familiar brands.

Jane Raymond suggests that a product should be advertised in as many ways as possible.

What group of consumers were specifically targeted in Jamie Rayner’s research?

What subject did Jane Raymond study before focusing on the behaviour of consumers?

According to the writer, what important aspect of an advertisement in print do many people fail to notice?

According to the writer, what do companies today want their products to have in order to make consumers feel positive about themselves?

What does Jane Raymond say will annoy someone watching a movie?

According to Jane Raymond, when do advertisers promote their products most fiercely?

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below. What is it and where does it come from? In the ancient world, the waxy grey substance we now refer to as ambergris was highly prized for its medicinal properties, and was widely used as a spice, which was believed to be an aphrodisiac when added to food or wine. Ambergris itself is pleasantly aromatic, especially when warmed, and it was also highly valued as a fixing agent in the making of perfume, since it enabled a scent to retain its fragrance for much longer than might otherwise have been possible. Most ambergris was found in the form of lumps floating on the surface of the sea, or washed up on the shores of tropical and temperate oceans. At one time, ambergris was worth its weight in gold, but there was much confusion about its origins. Ambergris was known to the Arabs as ‘ambar’ and was originally called amber in the West in the Middle Ages. This eventually led to further confusion in the popular mind between ambergris and true amber, the mineral known to mineralogists as succinite, which is actually fossilised tree resin, and generally yellow in colour. Both substances were rare and costly, and both were associated【缺少答案，请补充】

with the sea, largely because for Europeans the most common source of amber was the shores of the Baltic. In Chapter 92 of Moby Dick, the American writer Herman Melville pours scorn on those who believed the two substances to be the same: ‘Though the word ambergris is but the French compound for grey amber, yet the two substances are quite distinct. For amber, though at times found on the sea-coast, is also dug up in some far-inland soils, whereas ambergris is never found except upon the sea. Besides, amber is a hard, transparent, brittle, odourless substance, used for mouth-pieces to pipes, for beads and ornaments; but ambergris is soft, waxy, and so highly fragrant that it is largely used in perfumery.’ Moby Dick was published in 1851, by which time the mystery of the origins of ambergris had been resolved by the scientific community. In 1783, the botanist Joseph Banks, who had accompanied Captain James Cook on his voyages of discovery in the Pacific, presented a paper to the Royal Society of London by the German physician Dr Franz Xavier Schwediawer in which it was conclusively proved that ambergris came from sperm whales. In this, he was confirming an observation made in the 13ᵗʰ century by the great Venetian traveller Marco Polo who, while on the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean, had witnessed a sperm whale vomiting up ambergris. But whereas Marco Polo imagined that the whale had swallowed the lump in the depths of the sea, Schwediawer showed that the origin of the material was inside the whale itself. The sperm whale is the largest of the odontocetes, or toothed whales. Males can grow up to 20 metres in length. Melville described the sperm whale as ‘the king of whales’, and his novel Moby Dick is based on the pursuit of one such creature. Sperm whales are renowned for their ability to dive to great depths, possibly as far as 3 000 metres below the surface, and for remaining underwater for periods of two hours or more in pursuit of their favourite prey, the giant squid. It is from the problems the whales have in digesting the beaks of such creatures that ambergris has its origins. The beak is sharp and irritates the whale’s lower intestine, which responds by producing a black, foul-smelling liquid. It is not clear to scientists whether this secretion should be considered a normal response by the whale’s digestive system or a pathological one, but from time to time large quantities of the liquid are vomited up by the whale. Once outside the whale’s body and exposed to air, the substance hardens, acquiring the waxy, greyish and pleasantly aromatic characteristics of ambergris. Often the beaks of squid are still found embedded in lumps of ambergris, some of which can weigh several hundred kilograms. Melville took some delight in contrasting the origins of ambergris with the high value placed upon it by refined society: ‘Who would think, then, that such fine ladies and gentlemen should regale themselves with an essence found in the inglorious bowels of a sick whale!’ Sperm whales were ruthlessly pursued by commercial whalers in the 19ᵗʰ and 20ᵗʰ centuries. In 1963-64 alone, almost 30 000 individuals were killed, and only the imposition of a ban on the hunting of sperm whales in 1984 saved the species from extinction. Ambergris was by far the most valuable product to be extracted during the processing of the whales’ carcasses, and over 90 per cent of the annual worldwide total was acquired in this way, as a by-product of commercial whaling. However, even before the ban on hunting sperm whales was imposed, the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act had prohibited trade in ambergris. Just as petroleum and plastic products were replacing other natural products of whaling, so ambergris was supplanted in the making of perfume by other materials, some natural and some synthetic in origin. Nevertheless, it is possible that, as sperm-whale populations recover to their former numbers in the wild, so the sight of lumps of ambergris washed ashore along the tide-line will once again become a familiar one to beach-【缺少答案，请补充】

a food flavouring

used as currency

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