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A modern university is a place where members of academia from various backgrounds ______ with each other. In such an environment, issues of ______ communication become more and more important due to increasing internationalization outside the English-speaking world. One of the most salient challenges of internationalization are language barriers, defined in terms of factors preventing or disrupting the flow of information between speakers. Language barriers are important as they may lead to uncertainty, anxiety and mistrust, ______ to communicate effectively, as well as misattribution, conflict, and cognitive distortion. They also pose a ______ for those in charge because language-related difficulties may ______ strategic decision-making, personnel selection as well as evaluation procedures. In the higher education context, language barriers disrupt all three primary activities of an academic: research, teaching, and service. English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the ______ medium of choice, and often the only option. English understood as academic lingua franca is used for achieving common ______ in research and education, not for the purpose of linguistic or cultural identification with a community that uses it as a national language. Undoubtedly, the ______ of academia on this language has grown enormously in the last decades, as the contemporary university is based on ______ across national borders and internationally negotiated standards. Despite the benefits English as an academic lingua franca, many possibly negative effects of the widespread use of English at universities have been discussed, e.g., the potential disappearance of local languages, the lowering of learning standards, or the linguistic ______ in the domain of international publication where English is the dominant language.

Identify which part of a research paper the following phrases came from. Write one of the following letters at the end of each line: I = Introduction, M = Materials and methods, R = Results, or D = Discussion. Table 3 presents … The aim of the work described … There have been few long-term studies of … This may be explained by … Analysis was carried out using … … was highly correlated with … It is very likely that … because …

Human beings have been able to communicate for thousands of years. Yet scientific communication as we know it today is relatively new. The first journals were published about 350 years ago, and the IMRAD (introduction, methods, results, and discussion) organization of scientific papers has developed within about the past century. The early journals published papers that we call descriptive. Typically, a scientist would report, “First, I saw this, and then I saw that,” or “First, I did this, and then I did that.” Often the observations were in simple chronological order. This descriptive style was appropriate for the kind of science then being reported. In fact, this straightforward style of reporting still is sometimes used in “letters” journals, case reports in medicine, geological surveys, and so forth. By the second half of the nineteenth century, science was beginning to move fast and in increasingly sophisticated ways. Microbiology serves as an example. Especially through the work of Louis Pasteur, who confirmed the germ theory of disease and developed pure-culture methods of studying micro-organisms, both science and the reporting of science made great advances. At this time, methodology became all-important. Pasteur found it necessary to describe his experiments in exquisite detail. Because reasonably competent peers could reproduce Pasteur’s experiments, the principle of reproducibility of experiments became a fundamental tenet of the philosophy of science, and a separate methods section led the way toward the highly structured IMRAD format. World War II prompted the development of medical research, such as the discovery of penicillin and streptomycin. As these advances were pouring out of medical research laboratories, it was logical that investment in research would greatly increase. Money produced science, and science produced papers. Mountains of them. The result was powerful pressure on the existing (and the many new) journals. Journal editors, in self-defense if for no other reason, began to demand that manuscripts be concisely written and well organized. Journal space became too precious to be wasted on verbosity or redundancy. The IMRAD format, which had been slowly progressing since the latter part of the nineteenth century, now came into almost universal use in research journals. Some editors espoused IMRAD because they became convinced that it was the simplest and most logical way to communicate research results. Other editors, perhaps not convinced by the simple logic of IMRAD, nonetheless hopped on the bandwagon because the rigidity of IMRAD did indeed save space (and expense) in the journals and because IMRAD made life easier for editors and referees by indexing the major parts of a manuscript.【缺少答案，请补充】

What can be said about the history of scientific communication?

Which of the following best describes the early style of scientific papers?

Why did Louis Pasteur’s work contribute significantly to the development of scientific communication?

What was a major factor that led to the widespread adoption of the IMRAD format in research journals?

What motivated journal editors to demand more concise and well-organized manuscripts?

Research articles typically have a standard structure to facilitate communication, which is known as IMRAD (introduction, methods, results and discussion), although, of course, there are variations on this basic format. IMRAD is a formula for writing up, it was the simplest and most logical way to communicate research results. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form: What question (problem) was studied? The answer is the introduction. How was the problem studied? The answer is the methods. What were the findings? The answer is the results. What do these findings mean? The answer is the discussion. It now seems clear that the simple logic of IMRAD does help the author organize and write the manuscript, and IMRAD provides an easy road map for editors, referees, and ultimately readers to follow in reading the paper. The hourglass diagram is commonly used to represent the structure of an IMRAD article. In this diagram, it is the width and shape of the segments, rather than their depth, that tell us something important about scientific articles. The Introduction begins with a broad focus. The starting point you select for your Introduction should be the one that attracts the lively interest of the audience you are aiming to address: the international readers of your target journal. The Introduction ends with a statement of the aim or purpose of the work presented in the paper, or its principal findings or activity. The focus of the end is parallel to that of the Results. Between these two points, background information and previous work are woven together to logically connect the relevant problem with the approach taken in the work to be presented to address the problem. The Methods section, or its equivalent, establishes credibility for the Results by showing how they were obtained. In this section, what materials were used and how experiments were conducted in the research would be provided in a fair amount of details. The objective of the Methods section is to make available details of the experiments that would enable other researchers to repeat the experiments if needed. In the Results section, there will be text descriptions of the results from the experiments conducted alongside the data collected from the experiments. The data that the authors have obtained in their experiments would be presented in the form of figures, tables or even videos. The Discussion begins with the same breadth of focus as the Results - but it ends at the same breadth as the starting point of the Introduction. By the end, the paper is addressing the broader issues that you raised at the start, to show how your work is important in the “bigger picture”. Although the IMRAD format is widely used, it is not the only format for scientific papers. For example, in some journals the methods section appears at the end of papers. In some journals, there is a combined results and discussion section. In some, a conclusions section appears at the end. In some papers, especially in the social sciences, a long literature review section may appear near the beginning of the paper.【缺少答案，请补充】

What is the primary purpose of the IMRAD format in scientific writing?

What is the primary purpose of the Introduction section in an IMRAD article?

What is the main goal of the Methods section in an IMRAD article?

In the Results section of an IMRAD article, data is typically presented in which of the following forms?

Which of the following statements about variations on the IMRAD format is true?

In simplest terms, plagiarism is the use of someone else’s intellectual property as if it were your own personally developed concept. This can be something as simple as a few words to pictures, large blocks of text, charts, and other similar material. In short, if someone else developed the information, it is not free to be used without recognizing that source. A simple example would be to say that a formal definition of plagiarize is to steal and pass off the ideas or words of others as one’s own. The statement above embodies plagiarism since I didn’t originate those words. They were copied verbatim from Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary! Since there will be many instances when we may wish to use a direct quote from another source for inclusion in a report, study, or presentation, how do we achieve the use without plagiarizing? Perhaps the easiest method would be to cite the source, for example, In Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, plagiarism is defined as “to steal and pass off the ideas or words of others as one’s own”. In this manner, the source has been formally recognized. Another way is to add the source to the report’s reference list and cite it by placing a recognized mark, such as brackets ([ ]), and the reference number given in the list at the end of the quote. For example, It needs to be able to stand-alone and be as succinct as possible [4], in this case, the entry of [4] would signify the fourth entry in the reference list. In some report formats, the reference method could be a superscript or footnote. There are some journals and similar publications that do not require the use of reference callouts. Some might ask, at this point, so what? What does it matter if you use someone else’s work as if it were your own? Perhaps the biggest issue is a question of professional ethics on your part. Using another’s work and representing it as your own is not ethical and, in some instances, can be an illegal act, especially where formal copyrights are concerned.【缺少答案，请补充】

What is the simplest definition of plagiarism according to the text?

Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a way to avoid plagiarism?

Why is it important to avoid plagiarism, according to the text?

In the context of the text, what does the phrase “copied verbatim” mean?

Which of the following methods does the text suggest for formally recognizing a source in a report?